Thesis Political Representation

Abstract

The systematic under-representation of practically educated individuals in Dutch political institutions is examined in this thesis, along with its theoretical and moral ramifications. While theoretically educated people, especially university graduates, are disproportionately over-represented in political decision-making, these citizens are consistently less likely to have their opinions represented despite making up a sizable portion of the population. This thesis highlights a notable discrepancy between the demographics of the electorate and those in power, citing empirical research by Bovens and Wille (2014) and Schakel (2020). This discrepancy results in unequal influence over policy outcomes and raises important questions about justice and democratic legitimacy. In order to address the main research question, “How can people be treated as equal citizens if they are unevenly represented in government institutions and parliament?” First, the thesis examines both traditional and modern ideas of political representation. While distinguishing between formal, descriptive, symbolic, and substantive representation, it engages with founding theorists like Edmund Burke and Hanna Pitkin to clarify fundamental concepts like trustee and delegate models. Mansbridge, Saward, Dovi, Rehfeld, Young, and others explore alternative models like gyroscopic, anticipatory, surrogate, discursive, and constructivist representation, further developing the conceptual tools. The normative concerns of representation, particularly about marginalisation, are covered in Chapters 4 and 5. In addition to analysing the divergent opinions of Mill, Williams, Young, Mansbridge, Phillips, and Dovi regarding the fairness of representation and the rationale for unequal representation, this thesis looks at how representative institutions structurally exclude particular citizens. While Williams and Young support identity-based mediation and distinct group representation to include historically marginalised perspectives, Mill's multiple voting upholds aristocratic ideas of political competence. Dovi elaborates on this by outlining the moral requirements for "good representatives" who uphold autonomy, give those they represent more authority, and lessen the elite's power. Combining these theoretical perspectives, the conclusion claims that democratic equality demands inclusive and responsive representation that tackles power disparities and structural exclusion, rather than just procedural fairness. The final chapter's analysis of the Dutch case serves as a valuable case of these ideas. To maintain the idea of equality among all citizens, a liberal representative democracy must adapt its institutions to better represent people with realistic levels of education. Suggestions include expanding participation, embracing broader representation definitions, and recognising the legitimacy of socioeconomic-based and non-elective claims. This thesis examines the existing representational gaps and offers a normative framework for democratic behaviours that are more inclusive and equitable.